Nuclear physics

Nuclear physics is the study of atomic nuclei, their constituents, and the interactions that hold them together. Nuclei are the massive cores at the center of atoms and are made up of protons and neutrons (hadrons) which determine the element identity and isotope, and some of the radioactive processes.

Nuclear physics is the study of atomic nuclei, their constituents, and the interactions that hold them together. Nuclei are massive cores at the center of atoms and are made up of protons and neutrons (hadrons) which determine the element’s identity and isotope and some radioactive processes. Nuclei make up most of the mass we see around us, and are important to the inner workings of stars, the origin of chemical elements, and the early universe. Hadrons themselves are composed of more fundamental particles called quarks and gluons, and their interactions lead to the strong nuclear force that provides the binding force to keep protons and neutrons close together. This is described mathematically in the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Nuclear physics has many important applications in medicine, military, materials engineering, industry, biology, geology and archaeology.

Particle physics grew out of nuclear physics and is the study of the basic building blocks of matter, radiation and their interactions. Fundamental particles include not only hadrons but also leptons such as electrons and neutrinos. The force carriers are photons, gluons and W and Z bosons. The Standard Model of Elementary Particles mathematically describes the forces of matter in the universe (such as electromagnetic forces, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force) with astonishing accuracy. On the other hand, Einstein’s theory of general relativity explains the force of gravity (the fourth force) only for macroscopic matter but not at the quantum level. The Standard Model of elementary particles does not adequately explain quantum gravity. String theory is the leading quantum theory of gravity. The Standard Model has passed almost all experimental tests to date, but is still considered inadequate by most particle physicists because it does not explain masses as well as the origin of dark matter and dark energy. Neutrino mass measurements have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model of elementary particles, and recent observations show that 95% of the Universe consists of dark matter and dark energy, which is in good agreement with the Standard Model of cosmology. , but this case does not fit into the standard model of elementary particles.